How Gender Inequity Impacts on Men’s Health. An Exploration of Theoretical Pathways
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Abstract
Empirical studies suggest gender inequity increases men’s health risks. Multiple pathways may explain this relationship. These pathways however have not been explored concurrently. This paper is based on an extensive review of the theoretical literature linking gender inequity to men’s health. It identifies a range of theoretical approaches and examines links between them. In particular, it discusses masculinities and health theory, which argues gender inequity is linked to gender norms that lead to poor health-related beliefs and behaviours; the impact of gender inequity on men’s psychosocial and emotional experiences through limiting social roles, setting unattainable and restrictive expectations, and reducing access to social and emotional support; reproductive pathways, wherein gender inequity compromises optimal reproductive and early life outcomes leading to lifelong health impacts for males; and political, economic and social processes influenced by women’s social position that shape the social and economic resources, such as welfare and support, available to men. There are important interdependencies between these pathways. For example, masculine gender norms appear to not only increase poor health-related beliefs and behaviours, but also limit men’s opportunities to satisfy psychosocial and emotional needs. The findings suggest the extent of gender inequity can accentuate or buffer the negative health effects of other social inequalities. Further, while gender inequity provides men with many benefits, it limits access to the rich array of re-sources required to meet a diversity of lifelong health-related challenges. The paper provides the basis for richer theoretical approaches to men’s health.
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Kavanagh, S., & Graham, M. (2019). How Gender Inequity Impacts on Men’s Health. An Exploration of Theoretical Pathways. International Journal of Mens Social and Community Health, 2(1), e11-e21. https://doi.org/10.22374/ijmsch.v2i1.5
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9. Holter ØG. “What’s in it for men?” Old question, new data. Men and Masculinities. 2014 Dec 1;17(5):515–48.
10. Kavanagh SA, Shelley JM, Stevenson C. Is gender inequity a risk factor for men reporting poorer self-rated health in the United States? PLOS ONE [Internet]. 2018 Jul 17 [cited 2018 Sep 12];13(7):e0200332. Available from: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0200332
11. Van de Velde S, Huijts T, Bracke P, Bambra C. Macro-level gender equality and depression in men and women in Europe. Sociology of Health & Illness. 2013;35(5):682–698.
12. Rovito MJ, Leonard B, Llamas R, Leone JE, Talton W, Fadich A, et al. A Call for Gender-Inclusive Global Health Strategies. Am J Mens Health [Internet]. 2017 Nov 1 [cited 2018 Sep 10];11(6):1804–8. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988317723424
13. European Union. The state of men’s health in Europe [Internet]. Directorate-General for Health and Consumers, European Commission; 2011. Available from: http://ec.europa.eu/health/population_groups/docs/men_health_extended_en.pdf
14. Bots SH, Peters SAE, Woodward M. Sex differences in coronary heart disease and stroke mortality: a global assessment of the effect of ageing between 1980 and 2010. BMJ Global Health [Internet]. 2017 Mar 1 [cited 2018 Sep 20];2(2):e000298. Available from: https://gh.bmj.com/content/2/2/e000298
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17. World Health Organization. The health and well-being of men in the WHO European Region: better health through a gender approach [Internet]. 2018 Sep [cited 2018 Oct 31]. Available from: http://www.euro.who.int/en/publications/abstracts/the-health-and-well-being-of-men-in-the-who-european-region-better-health-through-a-gender-approach-2018
18. Stanistreet D, Swami V, Pope D, Bambra C, Scott-Samuel A. Women’s empowerment and violent death among women and men in Europe: an ecological study. The Journal of Men’s Health & Gender. 2007 Sep;4(3):257–65.
19. Connell RW. Masculinities. Australia: Allen & Unwin; 1995.
20. Stevenson A, editor. Oxford Dictionary of English [Internet]. 3rd Edition. Oxford University Press; 2010 [cited 2014 Feb 12]. Available from: http://www.oxfordreference.com
21. Connell RW, Messerschmidt JW. Hegemonic Masculinity Rethinking the concept. Gender & Society. 2005;19(6):829–59.
22. Courtenay W. Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men’s well-being: a theory of gender and health. In: Dying to be men: psychosocial, environmental, and biobehavioral directions in promoting the health of men and boys [Internet]. 1st ed. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis; 2011. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com
23. Pyke KD. Class-based masculinities: the interdependence of gender, class, and interpersonal power. Gender and Society. 1996 Oct 1;10(5):527–49.
24. Courtenay WH. Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men’s well-being: a theory of gender and health. Social Science & Medicine. 2000;50(10):1385–401.
25. Evans J, Frank B, Oliffe JL, Gregory D. Health, illness, men and masculinities (HIMM): a theoretical framework for understanding men and their health. Journal of Men’s Health. 2011 Mar;8(1):7–15.
26. Courtenay W. Engendering health: the social construction of gendered health beliefs and behaviors. In: Dying to be men: psychosocial, environmental, and biobehavioral directions in promoting the health of men and boys [Internet]. 1st ed. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis; 2011. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com
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28. Dolan A. ‘Men give in to chips and beer too easily’: How working-class men make sense of gender differences in health. Health (London). 2014 Mar 1;18(2):146–62.
29. Lohan M. How might we understand men’s health better? Integrating explanations from critical studies on men and inequalities in health. Social Science & Medicine. 2007 Aug;65(3):493–504.
30. Wong YJ, Ho M-HR, Wang S-Y, Miller ISK. Meta-analyses of the relationship between conformity to masculine norms and mental health-related outcomes. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2017;64(1):80–93.
31. Courtenay W, McCreary DR. Masculinity and Gender Role Conflict How They Influence the Likelihood That Men Will Engage in Multiple High-Risk Behaviors. In: Dying to be Men : Psychosocial, Environmental, and Biobehavioral Directions in Promoting the Health of Men and Boys. 1st ed. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis; 2011.
32. Pirkis J, Spittal MJ, Keogh L, Mousaferiadis T, Currier D. Masculinity and suicidal thinking. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2017 Mar 1;52(3):319–27.
33. Levant RF, Wimer DJ. Masculinity Constructs as Protective Buffers and Risk Factors for Men’s Health. Am J Mens Health. 2014;8(2):110–20.
34. Rogers AA, DeLay D, Martin CL. Traditional Masculinity During the Middle School Transition: Associations with Depressive Symptoms and Academic Engagement. J Youth Adolescence. 2016 Jul 19;1–16.
35. Leone JE, Rovito MJ, Mullin EM, Mohammed SD, Lee CS. Development and Testing of a Conceptual Model Regarding Men’s Access to Health Care. Am J Mens Health [Internet]. 2017 Mar 1 [cited 2018 Sep 10];11(2):262–74. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988316671637
36. O’Neil JM. The Psychology of Men. The Oxford Handbook of Counseling Psychology [Internet]. 2011 Nov 25 [cited 2018 Sep 17]; Available from: http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195342314.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195342314-e-014
37. Dworkin SL, Treves-Kagan S, Lippman SA. Gender-Transformative Interventions to Reduce HIV Risks and Violence with Heterosexually-Active Men: A Review of the Global Evidence. AIDS Behav [Internet]. 2013 Nov 1 [cited 2018 Jan 16];17(9):2845–63. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10461-013-0565-2
38. Sloan C, Gough B, Conner M. Healthy masculinities? How ostensibly healthy men talk about lifestyle, health and gender. Psychology & Health. 2010;25(7):783–803.
39. Sloan C, Conner M, Gough B. How Does Masculinity Impact on Health? A Quantitative Study of Masculinity and Health Behavior in a Sample of UK Men and Women. Psychology of Men & Masculinity. 2014 Jul 21;
40. de Visser RO, McDonnell EJ. “Man points”: masculine capital and young men’s health. Health Psychol. 2013 Jan;32(1):5–14.
41. Kubzansky LD, Seeman TE, Glymour MM. Biological Pathways Linking Social Conditions and Health. In: Berkman LF, Kawachi I, Glymour M, editors. Social Epidemiology. Oxford University Press; 2014.
42. Kubzansky LD, Winning A, Kawachi I. Affective States and Health. In: Berkman LF, Kawachi I, Glymour M, editors. Social Epidemiology. Oxford University Press; 2014.
43. Matthews KA, Gallo LC, Taylor SE. Are psychosocial factors mediators of socioeconomic status and health connections? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2010 Feb 1;1186(1):146–73.
44. McEwen BS. Protective and Damaging Effects of Stress Mediators. New England Journal of Medicine. 1998 Jan 15;338(3):171–9.
45. Siegrist J, Marmot M. Health inequalities and the psychosocial environment--two scientific challenges. Social Science & Medicine. 2004 Apr;58(8):1463–73.
46. Kristenson M, Eriksen HR, Sluiter JK, Starke D, Ursin H. Psychobiological mechanisms of socioeconomic differences in health. Social Science & Medicine. 2004 Apr;58(8):1511–22.
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